World Library  
  
Flag as Inappropriate
Email this Article

Mahatma Gandhi

Article Id: WHEBN0000019379
Reproduction Date:

Title: Mahatma Gandhi  
Author: World Heritage Encyclopedia
Language: English
Subject: Indian independence movement, Rajendra Prasad, Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, Subhas Chandra Bose
Collection: 1869 Births, 1948 Deaths, 20Th-Century Philosophers, Alumni of University College London, Anti-Poverty Advocates, Anti–world War II Activists, Articles Containing Video Clips, Ascetics, Assassinated Indian Politicians, Contemporary Indian Philosophers, Deaths by Firearm in India, Founders of Indian Schools and Colleges, Gujarati Literature, Gujarati People, Gujarati-Language Writers, Hindu Pacifists, Indian Activist Journalists, Indian Anti-War Activists, Indian Autobiographers, Indian Barristers, Indian Civil Rights Activists, Indian Emigrants to South Africa, Indian Expatriates in South Africa, Indian Expatriates in the United Kingdom, Indian Hindus, Indian Humanitarians, Indian Independence Activists, Indian Lawyers, Indian Memoirists, Indian Murder Victims, Indian Pacifists, Indian Philosophers, Indian Revolutionaries, Indian Tax Resisters, International Opponents of Apartheid in South Africa, Mahatma Gandhi, Mahatma Gandhi Family, Members of the Inner Temple, Natal Indian Congress Politicians, Nonviolence Advocates, People from Porbandar, People Murdered in Delhi, People of British India, People of the Second Boer War, Presidents of the Indian National Congress, Prisoners and Detainees of British India, Recipients of the Kaisar-I-Hind Medal, Relief Workers in Noakhali, Revolutionary Martyrs, South African Indian Congress Politicians, South African Lawyers, Swadeshi Activists, Tolstoyans
Publisher: World Heritage Encyclopedia
Publication
Date:
 

Mahatma Gandhi

imeTCOG-223">[224] The Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston, Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, is officially named after Gandhi.[225]

Global holidays

In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declared Gandhi's birthday 2 October as "the International Day of Nonviolence."[226] First proposed by UNESCO in 1948, as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace (DENIP in Spanish),[227] 30 January is observed as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace in schools of many countries[228] In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it is observed on 30 March.[228]

Awards

Monument to M.K. Gandhi in New Belgrade, Serbia. On the monument is written "Nonviolence is the essence of all religions".

Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930. Gandhi was also the runner-up to Albert Einstein as "Person of the Century"[229] at the end of 1999. The Government of India awards the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, was a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2011, Time magazine named Gandhi as one of the top 25 political icons of all time.[230]

Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the American Friends Service Committee,[231] though he made the short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947.[112] Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission, and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award.[112] Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was assassinated before nominations closed. That year, the committee chose not to award the peace prize stating that "there was no suitable living candidate" and later research shows that the possibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed and that the reference to no suitable living candidate was to Gandhi.[112] When the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi".[112]

Film and literature

Mahatma Gandhi has been portrayed in film, literature, and in the theatre. Ben Kingsley portrayed him in the 1982 film Gandhi, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture. Gandhi was a central figure in the 2006 Bollywood comedy film Lage Raho Munna Bhai. The 1996 film The Making of the Mahatma documented Gandhi's time in South Africa and his transformation from an inexperienced barrister to recognised political leader.[232]

Anti-Gandhi themes have also been showcased through films and plays. The 1995 Marathi play Gandhi Virudh Gandhi explored the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father was inspired on the same theme. The 1989 Marathi play Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy and the 1997 Hindi play Gandhi Ambedkar criticised Gandhi and his principles.[233][234]

Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life. Among them are D. G. Tendulkar with his Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in eight volumes, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar with their Mahatma Gandhi in 10 volumes. There is another documentary, Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948, which is 14 chapters and six hours long.[235] The 2010 biography, Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India by Joseph Lelyveld contained controversial material speculating about Gandhi's sexual life.[236] Lelyveld, however, stated that the press coverage "grossly distort[s]" the overall message of the book.[237] The 2014 film Welcome Back Gandhi takes a fictionalized look at how Gandhi might react to modern day India.[238]

Current impact within India

The Gandhi Mandapam, a temple in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu in India. This temple was erected to honour M.K. Gandhi.

India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbanisation, has rejected Gandhi's economics[239] but accepted much of his politics and continues to revere his memory. Reporter Jim Yardley notes that, "modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic and military power." By contrast Gandhi is "given full credit for India's political identity as a tolerant, secular democracy."[240]

Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday in India, Gandhi Jayanti. Gandhi's image also appears on paper currency of all denominations issued by Reserve Bank of India, except for the one rupee note.[241] Gandhi's date of death, 30 January, is commemorated as a Martyrs' Day in India.[242]

There are two temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.[243] One is located at Sambalpur in Orissa and the other at Nidaghatta village near Kadur in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka.[243] The Gandhi Memorial in Kanyakumari resembles central Indian Hindu temples and the Tamukkam or Summer Palace in Madurai now houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum.[244]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 1–3.
  2. ^ McGregor, Ronald Stuart (1993). The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 799.   Quote: (mahā- (S. "great, mighty, large, ..., eminent") + ātmā (S. "1.soul, spirit; the self, the individual; the mind, the heart; 2. the ultimate being."): "high-souled, of noble nature; a noble or venerable man."
  3. ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) p. 172: "... Kasturba would accompany Gandhi on his departure from Cape Town for England in July 1914 en route to India. ... In different South African towns (Pretoria, Cape Town, Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, and the Natal cities of Durban and Verulam), the struggle's martyrs were honoured and the Gandhi's bade farewell. Addresses in Durban and Verulam referred to Gandhi as a 'Mahatma', 'great soul'. He was seen as a great soul because he had taken up the poor's cause. The whites too said good things about Gandhi, who predicted a future for the Empire if it respected justice." (p. 172).
  4. ^ a b McAllister, Pam (1982). Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence. New Society Publishers. p. 194.   Quote: "With love, Yours, Bapu (You closed with the term of endearment used by your close friends, the term you used with all the movement leaders, roughly meaning 'Papa.'" Another letter written in 1940 shows similar tenderness and caring.
  5. ^   Quote: "... his niece Manu, who, like others called this immortal Gandhi 'Bapu,' meaning not 'father,' but the familiar, 'daddy.'" (p. 210)
  6. ^ a b Khan, Yasmin (2007). The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan. Yale University Press. p. 18.   Quote: "the Muslim League had only caught on among South Asian Muslims during the Second World War. ... By the late 1940s, the League and the Congress had impressed in the British their own visions of a free future for Indian people. ... one, articulated by the Congress, rested on the idea of a united, plural India as a home for all Indians and the other, spelt out by the League, rested on the foundation of Muslim nationalism and the carving out of a separate Muslim homeland." (p. 18)
  7. ^ Khan, Yasmin (2007). The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan. Yale University Press. p. 1.   Quote: "South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority lived in the countryside, ..., it is hardly surprising that many ... did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first they know about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India." (p. 1)
  8. ^ a b c Brown (1991), p. 380: "Despite and indeed because of his sense of helplessness Delhi was to be the scene of what he called his greatest fast. ... His decision was made suddenly, though after considerable thought – he gave no hint of it even to Nehru and Patel who were with him shorty before he announced his intention at a prayer-meeting on 12 January 1948. He said he would fast until communal peace was restored, real peace rather than the calm of a dead city imposed by police and troops. Patel and the government took the fast partly as condemnation of their decision to withhold a considerable cash sum still outstanding to Pakistan as a result of the allocation of undivided India's assets, because the hostilities that had broken out in Kashmir; ... But even when the government agreed to pay out the cash, Gandhi would not break his fast: that he would only do after a large number of important politicians and leaders of communal bodies agreed to a joint plan for restoration of normal life in the city. Although this six-day fast was a considerable physical strain, during it Gandhi experienced a great feeling of strength and peace."
  9. ^ a b Cush, Denise; Robinson, Catherine; York, Michael (2008). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Taylor & Francis. p. 544.   Quote: "The apotheosis of this contrast is the assassination of Gandhi in 1948 by a militant Hindu nationalist, Nathuram Godse, on the basis of his 'weak' accommodationist approach towards the new state of Pakistan." (p. 544)
  10. ^ "Gandhi not formally conferred 'Father of the Nation' title: Govt", The Indian Express, 11 July 2012.
  11. ^ "Constitution doesn't permit 'Father of the Nation' title: Government", The Times of India, 26 October 2012.
  12. ^ Todd, Anne M. (2012) Mohandas Gandhi, Infobase Publishing, ISBN 1438106629, p. 8: The name Gandhi means "grocer", although Mohandas's father and grandfather were politicians not grocers.
  13. ^ Misra, Amalendu (2004). Identity and Religion: Foundations of anti-Islamism in India. p. 67.  
  14. ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006). Mohandas: A True Story of a Man, His People, and an Empire By Gandhi. p. 5.  
  15. ^ a b c d e f Tendulkar, D. G. (1951). Mahatma; life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. 
  16. ^ Malhotra, S.L (2001). Lawyer to Mahatma: Life, Work and Transformation of M. K. Gandhi. p. 5.  
  17. ^ Sorokin, Pitirim Aleksandrovich (2002). The Ways and Power of Love: types, factors, and techniques of moral transformation. Templeton Foundation Press. p. 169.  
  18. ^ Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber and Rudolph, Lloyd I. (1983). Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma. University of Chicago Press. p. 48.  
  19. ^ a b Mohanty, Rekha (2011). "From Satya to Sadbhavna". Orissa Review (January 2011): 45–49. Retrieved 23 February 2012. 
  20. ^ Gandhi (1940). Chapter "At the High School".
  21. ^ Gandhi (1940). Chapter "Playing the Husband".
  22. ^ Gandhi (1940). Chapter "My Father's Death and My Double Shame".
  23. ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 2, 8, 269
  24. ^ Renard, John (1999). Responses to One Hundred and One Questions on Hinduism By John Renard. p. 139.  
  25. ^ Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber and Rudolph, Lloyd I. (1983). Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma. University of Chicago Press. p. 17.  
  26. ^ Gandhi (1940). Chapter "Preparation for England".
  27. ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 20–21.
  28. ^ a b c d Brown (1991).
  29. ^ Giliomee, Hermann and Mbenga, Bernard (2007). "3". In Roxanne Reid. New History of South Africa (1st ed.). Tafelberg. p. 193.  
  30. ^ a b Power, Paul F. (1969). "Gandhi in South Africa". The Journal of Modern African Studies 7 (3): 441–55.  
  31. ^ a b Parekh, Bhikhu C. (2001). Gandhi: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 7.  
  32. ^ a b Fischer (2002)
  33. ^ Gandhi (1940). Chapter "More Hardships".
  34. ^ Gandhi (1940). Chapter "Some Experiences".
  35. ^ Allen, Jeremiah (2011). Sleeping with Strangers: A Vagabond's Journey Tramping the Globe. Other Places Publishing. p. 273.  
  36. ^ "Wikisource link to March 1897 Memorial". Wikisource link to The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Wikisource: correspondence and newspaper accounts of the incident.
  37. ^ Rai, Ajay Shanker (2000). Gandhian Satyagraha: An Analytical And Critical Approach. Concept Publishing Company. p. 35.  
  38. ^ The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government of India (CWMG), Vol. I, p. 150.
  39. ^ The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government of India (CWMG), Vol. I, p. 74.
  40. ^ The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government of India (CWMG), Vol. I, pp. 244–45.
  41. ^ The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government of India (CWMG), Vol. I, p. 105.
  42. ^ Quinn, Edward (1 January 2009). Critical Companion to George Orwell. Infobase Publishing. pp. 158–59.  
  43. ^ a b Bhana, Surendra; Vahed, Goolam H. (2005). The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. Manohar. pp. 44–5, 149.  
  44. ^ Herman (2008) chapter 6.
  45. ^ a b Beene, Gary (December 2010). The Seeds We Sow: Kindness That Fed a Hungry World. Sunstone Press. p. 272.  
  46. ^ Herman (2008), p. 137.
  47. ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 108–09.
  48. ^ See magazine)Philosophy Now"Gandhi - A Medium for Truth" (link to article in , accessed March 2014.
  49. ^ Smith, Colleen (1 October 2006). "Mbeki: Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha 100th Anniversary (01/10/2006)". Speeches. Polityorg.za. Retrieved 20 January 2012. 
  50. ^ Prashad, Ganesh (September 1966). "Whiggism in India".  
  51. ^ Markovits, Claude (2004). A History of Modern India, 1480–1950. Anthem Press. pp. 367–86.  
  52. ^ Chronology of Mahatma Gandhi's Life:India 1918 in WikiSource based on the Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Based on public domain volumes.
  53. ^ Gandhi (1940). Chapter "Recruiting Campaign".
  54. ^ a b Desai, Mahadev Haribhai (1930). "Preface". Day-to-day with Gandhi: secretary's diary. Hemantkumar Nilkanth (translation). Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan. Archived from the original on 3 June 2007. 
  55. ^ Gandhi (1965), Collected Works, Vol 17. Chapter "67. Appeal for enlistment", Nadiad, 22 June 1918.
  56. ^ Gandhi (1965), Collected Works, Vol 17. "Chapter 8. Letter to J. L. Maffey", Nadiad, 30 April 1918.
  57. ^ a b Hardiman, David (April 2001). "Champaran and Gandhi: Planters, Peasants and Gandhian Politics by Jacques Pouchepadass (Review)". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11 (1): 99–101.  
  58. ^ "Satyagraha Laboratories of Mahatma Gandhi".  
  59. ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 196–97.
  60. ^ Brown, Judith M. (1974). Gandhi's Rise to Power: Indian Politics 1915–1922. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–102.  
  61. ^ Minault, Gail (1982) The Khilafat Movement Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0231050720
  62. ^ Kham, Aqeeluzzafar (1990). "The All-India Muslim Conference and the Origin of the Khilafat Movement in India". Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society 38 (2): 155–62. 
  63. ^ a b Roberts, W. H. (1923). "A Review of the Gandhi Movement in India". Political Science Quarterly 38 (2): 227–48.  
  64. ^ Bose, Sugata and Jalal, Ayesha (2004). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy. Psychology Press. pp. 112–14.  
  65. ^ Brown (1991) pp. 140–47.
  66. ^ von Pochhammer, Wilhelm (2005). India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent. Allied Publishers. p. 440.  
  67. ^ Sarkar, Sumit (1983). Modern India: 1885–1947. Macmillan. p. 233.  
  68. ^ Markovits, Claude, ed. (2004). A History of Modern India, 1480–1950. Anthem Press. p. 372.  
  69. ^ Brown, Judith Margaret (1994). Modern India: the origins of an Asian democracy. Oxford U. Press. p. 228.  
  70. ^ Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1940).   Also available at Wikisource.
  71. ^ Chakrabarty, Bidyut (2008). Indian Politics and Society since Independence: events, processes and ideology. Routledge. p. 154.  
  72. ^ Hardiman (2003), p. 163.
  73. ^ Desai, p. 89.
  74. ^ Shashi, p. 9.
  75. ^ Desai, p. 105.
  76. ^ a b c  
  77. ^ Datta, Amaresh (1 January 2006). The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti). Sahitya Akademi. p. 1345.  
  78. ^ Desai, p. 131.
  79. ^ Jain, Jagdishchandra (1987). Gandhi, the forgotten Mahatma. Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 17.  
  80. ^ Gandhi 1990, p. 172.
  81. ^ Hatt (2002), p. 33.
  82. ^ Norvell, Lyn (1997). "Gandhi and the Indian Women's Movement". British Library Journal 23 (1): 12–27.  
  83. ^ Sarma, Bina Kumari (January 1994). "Gandhian Movement and Women's Awakening in Orissa". Indian Historical Review 21 (1/2): 78–79.  
  84. ^ Murali, Atlury (January 1985). "Non-Cooperation in Andhra in 1920–22: Nationalist Intelligentsia and the Mobilization of Peasantry". Indian Historical Review 12 (1/2): 188–217.  
  85. ^ Herman (2008) pp. 375–77.
  86. ^ a b Kamath, M. V. (1995). Gandhi's Coolie: Life & Times of Ramkrishna Bajaj. Allied Publishers. p. 24.  
  87. ^  
  88. ^ Kalchuri, Bhau (1986) "Meher Prabhu: Lord Meher, The Biography of the Avatar of the Age, Meher Baba", Manifestation, Inc., p. 1380.
  89. ^ Desai, pp. 230–89.
  90. ^ 100 Most Influential People of All Times. p. 354.
  91. ^ Guha, Ramachandra (22 June 2012) "The Other Liberal Light". The New Republic.
  92. ^ Gandhi 1990, p. 246.
  93. ^ Ghose, Sankar (1992). Jawaharlal Nehru, A Biography, p. 137. Allied Publishers Limited.
  94. ^ Gandhi 1990, pp. 277–281.
  95. ^ Sarkar, Jayabrata (18 April 2006). "Power, Hegemony and Politics: Leadership Struggle in Congress in the 1930s". Modern Asian Studies 40 (2): 333–70.  
  96. ^ Dash, Siddhartha (January 2005). "Gandhi and Subhas Chandra Bose". Orissa Review. Retrieved 12 April 2012. 
  97. ^ Gandhi 1990, pp. 283–286.
  98. ^ Gandhi 1990, p. 309.
  99. ^ Gandhi 1990, p. 318.
  100. ^ Brock, Peter (1983). The Mahatma and mother India: essays on Gandhiʼs nonviolence and nationalism.  
  101. ^  
  102. ^ von Pochhammer, Wilhelm (2005). India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent. Allied Publishers. p. 469.  
  103. ^ Lapping, Brian (1989). End of empire. Paladin.  
  104. ^ "Gandhi, Jinnah Meet First Time Since '44; Disagree on Pakistan, but Will Push Peace".   (subscription required)
  105. ^ Jalil, Azizul (1944). "When Gandhi met Jinnah".  
  106. ^ Bhattacharya, Sanjoy (2001). Propaganda and information in Eastern India, 1939–45: a necessary weapon of war. Psychology Press. p. 33.  
  107. ^ Shashi, p. 13.
  108. ^ Reprinted in Fischer (2002), pp. 106–08.
  109. ^ Keen, Shirin (Spring 1998). "The Partition of India". Emory University. 
  110. ^ Jack, p. 418.
  111. ^ Wolpert, Chapter 1.
  112. ^ a b c d e Tønnesson, Øyvind (1 December 1999). "Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 16 January 2012. 
  113. ^ Metcalf, Barbara Daly; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006). A concise history of modern India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 221–22.  
  114. ^ Saikia, Bijoy Sankar (2 October 2006). "Why Mahatma Gandhi didn't get a Nobel Prize". CNN IBN-Live. 
  115. ^ Wolpert, p. 7.
  116. ^ Gandhi, Tushar A. (2007). "Let's Kill Gandhi !": A Chronicle of His Last Days, the Conspiracy, Murder, Investigation, and Trial. Rupa & Company. p. 12.  
  117. ^ Hardiman, David (2003). Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas. Columbia University Press. pp. 174–76.  
  118. ^ Lal, Vinay (January 2001). Hey Ram': The Politics of Gandhi's Last Words"'". Humanscape 8 (1): 34–38. 
  119. ^ Singh, M. K. (2009). Encyclopaedia of Indian War of Independence (1857–1947) (Set of 19 Vols.). Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.  
  120. ^ Jain, 1996, pp. 45–47.
  121. ^ "Over a million get last darshan". The Indian Express. 1 February 1948. p. 1 (bottom left). Retrieved 19 January 2012. 
  122. ^ "Of all faiths and races, together they shed their silent tears". The Indian Express. 31 January 1948. p. 5 (top centre). Retrieved 19 January 2012. 
  123. ^ Guha, Ramachandra (2007), India after Gandhi, Harper Collins, ISBN 978-0-330-50554-3, pp. 37–40.
  124. ^ Gopal, Sarvepalli (1979), Jawaharlal Nehru, Jonathan Cape, London, ISBN 0224016210, pp. 16–17.
  125. ^ Khan, Yasmin (2011). "Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state". Modern Asian Studies 45 (1): 57–80.   (subscription required)
  126. ^ LIFE. Time Inc. 15 March 1948. p. 76.  
  127. ^ a b Ramesh, Randeep (16 January 2008). "Gandhi's ashes to rest at sea, not in a museum".  
  128. ^ Kumar, Shanti (2006). Gandhi meets primetime: globalization and nationalism in Indian television. University of Illinois Press. p. 170.  
  129. ^ Ferrell, David (27 September 2001). "A Little Serenity in a City of Madness" (Abstract). Los Angeles Times. p. B 2. Retrieved 14 January 2012. 
  130. ^ Sankhdher, M. M. (1972), "Gandhism: A Political Interpretation", Gandhi Marg, pp. 68–74.
  131. ^ Kamath, M. V. (2007), Gandhi, a spiritual journey, Indus Source, ISBN 8188569119, p. 195.
  132. ^ Cribb, R. B. (1985). "The Early Political Philosophy of M. K. Gandhi, 1869–1893". Asian Profile 13 (4): 353–60. 
  133. ^ Brown, Judith M. and Parel, Anthony (2011). The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi. Cambridge University Press. p. 93.  
  134. ^ Rudolph, Lloyd I. and Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber (1984). The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India. U. of Chicago Press. pp. 17–19.  
  135. ^ Religion – Hinduism: Gandhi – Mohandas 'Mahatma' Gandhi retrieved 12 November 2012.
  136. ^ Crib (1985).
  137. ^
  138. ^ Williams, Raymond Brady (2001). An introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 173.  
  139. ^ Low, D. A., ed. (2006). Congress and the Raj: Facets of the Indian Struggle 1917 – 47. Oxford University Press. pp. 60–64.  
  140. ^ Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind (1972). "Gandhi and History". History and Theory 11 (2): 214–25. JSTOR 2504587. doi:10.2307/2504587. 
  141. ^ Spodek, Howard (February 1971). "On the Origins of Gandhi's Political Methodology: The Heritage of Kathiawad and Gujarat". Journal of Asian Studies 30 (2): 361–72.  
  142. ^ B. Srinivasa Murthy, ed. (1987). Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy: Letters.  
  143. ^ Murthy, B. Srinivasa, ed. (1987). Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy: Letters. Long Beach, California: Long Beach Publications.  
  144. ^ Green, Martin Burgess (1986). The origins of nonviolence: Tolstoy and Gandhi in their historical settings. Pennsylvania State University Press.  
  145. ^ Bhana, Surendra (1979). "Tolstoy Farm, A Satyagrahi's Battle Ground". Journal of Indian History 57 (2/3): 431–40. 
  146. ^ Johnson, Richard L. (2006). Gandhi's Experiments With Truth: Essential Writings By And About Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books. p. 11.  
  147. ^ Watson, I. Bruce (1977). "Satyagraha: The Gandhian Synthesis". Journal of Indian History 55 (1/2): 325–35. 
  148. ^ Parel, Anthony (10 August 2006). Gandhi's Philosophy and the Quest for Harmony. Cambridge University Press. p. 195.  
  149. ^ Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi's pilgrimage of faith: from darkness to light. SUNY Press. p. 138.  
  150. ^ Gandhi, M.K. "Some Rules of Satyagraha Young India (Navajivan) 23 February 1930". The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi 48: 340. 
  151. ^ Prabhu, R. K. and Rao, U. R. (eds.) (1967) from section "Power of Satyagraha", of the book The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi, Ahemadabad, India.
  152. ^ Gandhi, M. K. (1982) [Young India, 16 June 1920]. "156. The Law of Suffering". Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi 20 (electronic ed.). New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. pp. 396–99. Retrieved 14 January 2012. 
  153. ^ Sharma, Jai Narain (2008). Satyagraha: Gandhi's approach to conflict resolution. Concept Publishing Company. p. 17.  
  154. ^ Asirvatham, Eddy. Political Theory. S.chand.  
  155. ^ Borman, William (1986). Gandhi and nonviolence. SUNY Press. p. 253.  
  156. ^ Faisal Devji, The Impossible Indian: Gandhi and the Temptation of Violence (Harvard University Press; 2012)
  157. ^ Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh.
  158. ^ Rai, Raghunath. Themes in Indian History. FK Publications. p. 282.  
  159. ^ reprinted in Fischer (2002), p. 311.
  160. ^ Wolpert, p. 197.
  161. ^ Orwell, review of Louis Fischer's Gandhi and Stalin, The Observer, 10 October 1948, reprinted in It Is what I Think, pp. 452-453.
  162. ^ Fischer, Louis (1950). The life of Mahatma Gandhi. Harper. p. 348. 
  163. ^ George Orwell, "Reflections on Gandhi", Partisan Review, January 1949.
  164. ^ Kumaraswamy, P. R. (1992). "Mahatma Gandhi and the Jewish National Home: An Assessment". Asian and African studies: Journal of the Israel Oriental Society 26 (1): 1–13. 
  165. ^ Ghose, Sankar (1991). Mahatma Gandhi. Allied Publishers. p. 164.  
  166. ^ Birendra Prasad, "Indian Opinion and the Peel Commission on Palestine", Indian Journal of Politics (1977), 11#3, pp. 223–28.
  167. ^ a b  
  168. ^ Panter-Brick, Simone (2008), Gandhi And The Middle East: Jews, Arabs and Imperial Interests. London: I.B. Tauris, ISBN 1845115848.
  169. ^ Panter-Brick, Simone. "Gandhi's Dream of Hindu-Muslim Unity and its two Offshoots in the Middle East". Durham Anthropology Journal, Volume 16(2), 2009: pp. 54–66.
  170. ^ Jack, p. 317.
  171. ^ Murti, Ramana V.V. (1968). "Buber's Dialogue and Gandhi's Satyagraha". Journal of the History of Ideas 29 (4): 605–13.  
  172. ^ Hay, Stephen (1989). "The Making of a Late-Victorian Hindu: M. K. Gandhi in London, 1888–1891". Victorian Studies 33 (1): 75–98.  
  173. ^ Chitrita Banerji, Eating India: an odyssey into the food and culture of the land of spices (2007), p. 169.
  174. ^ Wolpert, p. 22.
  175. ^ Sen, Colleen Taylor (2004). Food Culture in India. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 27.  
  176. ^ Cited in Chakrabarti, Mohit (1997), Gandhian Socio-Aesthetics, M.D. Publications Pvt., ISBN 8175330481, p. 24.
  177. ^ Becker, Carol (2006). "Gandhi's Body and Further Representations of War and Peace". Art Journal 65 (4): 78.  
  178. ^ Pratt, Tim and Vernon, James (2005). "'Appeal from this fiery bed...': The Colonial Politics of Gandhi's Fasts and Their Metropolitan Reception". Journal of British Studies 44 (1): 92–114. doi:10.1086/424944. 
  179. ^ Alter, Joseph S. (1996). "Gandhi's body, Gandhi's truth: Nonviolence and the biomoral imperative of public health". Journal of Asian Studies 35 (2): 301–22.  
  180. ^ Parekh, Bhikhu C. (1999) Colonialism, Tradition and Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi's Political Discourse. Sage, ISBN 0761993835, p. 210.
  181. ^ Jad Adams (7 April 2010). "Thrill of the chaste: The truth about Gandhi's sex life". The Independent. 
  182. ^ Lal, Vinay (Jan–Apr 2000). "Nakedness, Nonviolence, and Brahmacharya: Gandhi's Experiments in Celibate Sexuality". Journal of the History of Sexuality 9 (1/2): 105–36.  
  183. ^ a b c Howard, Veena R. (2013). "Rethinking Gandhi's celibacy: Ascetic power and women's empowerment".  
  184. ^ Dehury, Dinabandhu "Mahatma Gandhi's Contribution to Education", Orissa Review, September/October 2006, pp. 11–15; December 2008, pp. 1–5.
  185. ^ Weber, Thomas (2004). Gandhi As Disciple And Mentor. Cambridge U. Press. p. 80.  
  186. ^ Yencken, David; Fien, John and Sykes, Helen (2000). Environment, Education, and Society in the Asia-Pacific: Local Traditions and Global Discourses. Psychology Press. p. 107.  
  187. ^ Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber (1963). "The New Courage: An Essay on Gandhi's Psychology". World Politics 16 (1): 98–117.  
  188. ^ Parel, Anthony (ed.) (2000), Gandhi, Freedom, and Self-Rule, Lexington Books, ISBN 0739101374, p. 166.
  189. ^ Snow, Edgar. The Message of Gandhi. 27 September March 1948. "Like Marx, Gandhi hated the state and wished to eliminate it, and he told me he considered himself 'a philosophical anarchist.'"
  190. ^ Jesudasan, Ignatius (1987) A Gandhian theology of liberation. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash: Ananda India, pp. 236–37, ISBN 0883441543.
  191. ^ Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand; Tolstoy, Leo (September 1987). B. Srinivasa Murthy, ed. Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy letters. Long Beach Publications. Retrieved 21 January 2012. 
  192. ^ Easwaran, Eknath. Gandhi the Man. Nilgiri Press, 2011. p. 49.
  193. ^ Gillen, Paul and Ghosh, Devleena (2007). Colonialism and Modernity. UNSW Press. p. 130.  
  194. ^ Tewari, S. M. (1971). "The Concept of Democracy in the Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi". Indian Political Science Review 6 (2): 225–51. 
  195. ^ Bhatt, V. V. (1982). "Development Problem, Strategy, and Technology Choice: Sarvodaya and Socialist Approaches in India". Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (1): 85–99.  
  196. ^ Rivett, Kenneth (1959). "The Economic Thought of Mahatma Gandhi". British Journal of Sociology 10 (1): 1–15.  
  197. ^
  198. ^ Pandikattu, Kuruvila (2001). Gandhi: the meaning of Mahatma for the millennium. CRVP. p. 237.  
  199. ^ "Would Gandhi have been a WorldHeritagen?". The Indian Express. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012. 
  200. ^ "Peerless Communicator" by V. N. Narayanan. Life Positive Plus, October–December 2002.
  201. ^ Gandhi, M. K. Unto this Last: A paraphrase (PDF) (in English; trans. from Gujarati). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House.  
  202. ^ Pareku, Bhikhu (2001). Gandhi. Oxford University Press. p. 159.  
  203. ^
  204. ^ Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG) Controversy.
  205. ^ Tagore, Rabindranath (15 December 1998). Dutta, Krishna, ed. Rabindranath Tagore: an anthology. Robinson, Andrew. Macmillan. p. 2.  
  206. ^ Desai, p. viii.
  207. ^ Basu Majumdar, A. K. (1993), Rabindranath Tagore: The Poet of India, Indus Publishing, ISBN 8185182922, p. 83: "When Gandhi returned to India, Rabindranath's eldest brother Dwijendranath, was perhaps the first to address him as Mahatma. Rabindranath followed suit and then the whole of India called him Mahatma Gandhi."
  208. ^ Ghose, Sankar (1991). Mahatma Gandhi. Allied Publishers. p. 158.  
  209. ^ "King's Trip to India". Mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 21 March 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  210. ^ Sidner, Sara (17 February 2009). "King moved, as father was, on trip to Gandhi's memorial". cnn.com Asia-Pacific (CNN). Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  211. ^ D'Souza, Placido P. (20 January 2003). "Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.: Gandhi's influence on King". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 9 December 2012. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  212. ^ Tougas, Shelley (1 January 2011). Birmingham 1963: How a Photograph Rallied Civil Rights Support. Capstone Press. p. 12.  
  213. ^ Cone, James (1992). Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream Or a Nightmare. Orbis Books.  
  214. ^ a b Nelson Mandela, "The Sacred Warrior: The liberator of South Africa looks at the seminal work of the liberator of India", Time, 3 January 2000.
  215. ^ Pal, Amitabh (February 2002). "A pacifist uncovered- Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Pakistani pacifist". The Progressive. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  216. ^ "An alternative Gandhi". The Tribune. India. 22 February 2004. Retrieved 12 March 2009. 
  217. ^ "Einstein on Gandhi (Einstein's letter to Gandhi – Courtesy:Saraswati Albano-Müller & Notes by Einstein on Gandhi – Source: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem )". Gandhiserve.org. 18 October 1931. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  218. ^ Dhupelia-Mesthrie, Uma (1 January 2005). Gandhi's prisoner?: the life of Gandhi's son Manilal. Permanent Black. p. 293.  
  219. ^ "In the company of Bapu".  
  220. ^ Gilmore, Mikal (5 December 2005). "Lennon Lives Forever". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 28 May 2007. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  221. ^ Kar, Kalyan (23 June 2007). "Of Gandhigiri and Green Lion, Al Gore wins hearts at Cannes". Cannes Lions 2007. exchange4media. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  222. ^ "Remarks by the President to the Joint Session of the Indian Parliament in New Delhi, India". The White House. 8 November 2010. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  223. ^ "Obama steers clear of politics in school pep talk". MSNBC. Associated Press. 8 September 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  224. ^ "The Children of Gandhi" (excerpt). Time. 31 December 1999. 
  225. ^ Moreno, Jenalia (16 January 2010). "Houston community celebrates district named for Gandhi". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 24 January 2012. 
  226. ^ "UN declares 2 October, Gandhi's birthday, as International Day of Nonviolence". UN News Centre. 15 June 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2012. 
  227. ^ "School Day of Nonviolence And Peace". Letter of Peace addressed to the UN. cartadelapaz.org. 30 January 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2012. 
  228. ^ a b Eulogio Díaz del Corral (31 January 1983). "DENIP: School Day of Nonviolence and Peace". DENIP (in Spanish). Retrieved 30 January 2012. 
  229. ^ Rushdie, Salman (13 April 1998). "The Time 100". Time. Retrieved 3 March 2009. 
  230. ^ "Top 25 Political Icons". Time. 4 February 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011. 
  231. ^ "Nobel Peace Prize Nominations". American Friends Service Committee. Retrieved 30 January 2012. 
  232. ^ Melvani, Lavina (February 1997). "Making of the Mahatma". Hinduism Today. hinduismtoday.com. Retrieved 26 January 2012. 
  233. ^ "It's fashionable to be anti-Gandhi". DNA. 1 October 2005. Retrieved 25 January 2013. 
  234. ^ Dutt, Devina (20 February 2009). "Drama king".  
  235. ^ "Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948 (1968)". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 26 January 2012. 
  236. ^ Kunzru, Hari (29 March 2011). "Appreciating Gandhi Through His Human Side". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 January 2012.  (Review of Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India by Joseph Lelyveld).
  237. ^ "US author slams Gandhi gay claim". The Australian (News Limited). Agence France-Presse. 29 March 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2012. 
  238. ^ "A Welcome Effort". The Hindu. Retrieved 24 January 2014. 
  239. ^ Ghosh, B. N. (2001). Contemporary issues in development economics. Psychology Press. p. 211.  
  240. ^ Yardley, Jim (6 November 2010). "Obama Invokes Gandhi, Whose Ideal Eludes India". Asia-Pacific. Retrieved 22 January 2012. 
  241. ^ "Reserve Bank of India – Bank Notes". Rbi.org.in. Retrieved 5 November 2011. 
  242. ^ Chatterjee, Sailen. "Martyrs’ Day". Features. Press Information Bureau. Retrieved 30 January 2012. 
  243. ^ a b Kaggere, Niranjan (2 October 2010). "Here, Gandhi is God". BangaloreMirror.com. Retrieved 29 January 2011. 
  244. ^ Abram, David; Edwards, Nick (27 November 2003). The Rough Guide to South India. Rough Guides. p. 506.  

Bibliography

Books

  •  
  • Brown, Judith M. "Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand [Mahatma Gandhi] (1869–1948)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, January 2011 accessed 25 February 2012 (subscription required)
  • Brown, Judith M., and Anthony Parel, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi (2012); 14 esssays by scholars excerpt and text search
  • Brown, Judith Margaret (1991). Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope. Yale University Press.  
  •  
  • Hook, Sue Vander (1 September 2010). Mahatma Gandhi: Proponent of Peace. ABDO.  
  • Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006). Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire. University of California Press.  
  • Gangrade, K.D. (2004). "Role of Shanti Sainiks in the Global Race for Armaments". Moral Lessons From Gandhi's Autobiography And Other Essays. Concept Publishing Company.  
  • Hardiman, David (2003). Gandhi in His Time and Ours: the global legacy of his ideas. C. Hurst & Co.  
  • Hatt, Christine (2002). Mahatma Gandhi. Evans Brothers.  
  • Herman, Arthur (2008). Gandhi and Churchill: the epic rivalry that destroyed an empire and forged our age. Random House Digital, Inc.  
  • Jai, Janak Raj (1996). Commissions and Omissions by Indian Prime Ministers: 1947–1980. Regency Publications.  
  • Johnson, Richard L. (2006). Gandhi's Experiments with Truth: Essential Writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books.  
  • Jones, Constance and Ryan, James D. (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. p. 160.  
  • Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi's Pilgrimage of Faith: from darkness to light. SUNY Press.  
  • Mathew, Sarah; Afreen, Munnazza (9 July 2013). An Introduction to Education. AuthorHouse.  
  • Pāṇḍeya, Viśva Mohana (2003). Historiography of India's Partition: an analysis of imperialist writings. Atlantic Publishers & Dist.  
  • Pilisuk, Marc; Nagler, Michael N. (2011). Peace Movements Worldwide: Players and practices in resistance to war. ABC-CLIO.  
  • Rühe, Peter (5 October 2004). Gandhi. Phaidon.  
  • Schouten, Jan Peter (2008). Jesus as Guru: the image of Christ among Hindus and Christians in India. Rodopi.  
  • Sharp, Gene (1979). Gandhi as a Political Strategist: with essays on ethics and politics. P. Sargent Publishers.  
  • Shashi, S. S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Anmol Publications.  
  • Sofri, Gianni (1999). Gandhi and India: a century in focus. Windrush Press.  
  • Thacker, Dhirubhai (2006). ""Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand" (entry)". In Amaresh Datta. The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti). Sahitya Akademi. p. 1345.  
  • Todd, Anne M (2004). Mohandas Gandhi. Infobase Publishing.  ; short biography for children
  • Wolpert, Stanley (2002). Gandhi's Passion: the life and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford University Press.  

Primary sources

  • Abel M (4 January 2005). Glimpses Of Indian National Movement. ICFAI Books.  
  • Andrews, C. F. (2008) [1930]. "VII – The Teaching of Ahimsa". Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas Including Selections from His Writings. Pierides Press.  
  • Dalton, Dennis, ed. (1996). Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings. Hackett Publishing.  
  • Duncan, Ronald, ed. (May 2011). Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Literary Licensing, LLC.  
  • Gandhi, M. K.; Fischer, Louis (2002). Louis Fischer, ed. The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work and Ideas. Vintage Books.  
  • Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). Satyagraha in South Africa (in Gujarati) (1 ed.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. Translated by Valji G. Desai  Free online access at Wikilivres.ca (1/e). Pdfs from Gandhiserve (3/e) & Yann Forget (hosted by Arvind Gupta) (1/e).
  • Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1994). The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India.   (100 volumes). Free online access from Gandhiserve.
  • Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). "Drain Inspector's Report". The United States of India 5 (6,7,8): 3–4. 
  • Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1990). Desai, Mahadev H., ed. Autobiography:  
  • Gandhi, Rajmohan (9 October 2007). Mohandas: True Story of a Man, His People. Penguin Books Limited.  
  • Guha, Ramachandra (2 October 2013). "1. Middle Cast, Middle Rank". Gandhi Before India. Penguin Books Limited.  
  • Jack, Homer A., ed. (1994). The Gandhi Reader: A Source Book of His Life and Writings. Grove Press.  
  • Johnson, Richard L. and Gandhi, M. K. (2006). Gandhi's Experiments With Truth: Essential Writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books.  
  • Todd, Anne M. (1 January 2009). Mohandas Gandhi. Infobase Publishing.  
  • Parel, Anthony J., ed. (2009). Gandhi: "Hind Swaraj" and Other Writings Centenary Edition. Cambridge University Press.  

External links

  • Sannuti, Arun (6 April 2010). "Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948) – Vegetarianism: The Road to Satyagraha". International Vegetarian Union (IVU). Retrieved 12 January 2012. 
  • Riggenbach, Jeff (2 February 2011). "Does Gandhi Deserve a Place in the Libertarian Tradition?". Mises Daily ( 
  • About Mahatma Gandhi
  • Gandhi Ashram at Sabarmati
  • Gandhi Smriti — Government of India website
  • Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya Gandhi Museum & Library
  • Sughosh, India (2 October 2010). "Bapu: Complete Life History". Research Work. http://www.bapu.sughosh.in. Retrieved 15 August 2012. 
  • Gandhi Research Foundation – One-Stop info on Gandhi
  • Works by or about Mahatma Gandhi in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
  • Mohandas K. Gandhi materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)
  • Works by Mahatma Gandhi at Project Gutenberg
  • Mohandas "Mahatma" Gandhi at Find a Grave
Mahatma Gandhi
Family
Influences
Life
Philosophy
Publications
Associates
Legacy
Influenced
Memorials
Physical
Observances
Topics
Reformers and
revivalist writers
Social and political philosophy
Philosophers
Social theories
Social concepts
Related articles
Practices
Religious and spiritual
Secular movements
Notable writers
Modern-day adherents
Media
Related topics
Short stories
Plays
Non-fiction
Family
Influenced
Legacy
Events
(timeline)
Related
Activist
groups
Activists
Influences
Noted
historians
Asian of the Century The Big Five
Politics and Government
Business and Economics
Arts, Literature and Culture
Akira Kurosawa (Japan)
Science and Technology
Moral and Spiritual Leadership
Mohandas K. Gandhi (India)
Authority control

This article was sourced from Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. World Heritage Encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers, Open Access Publishing, and in compliance with The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR), Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Public Library of Science, The Encyclopedia of Life, Open Book Publishers (OBP), PubMed, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, and USA.gov, which sources content from all federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial government publication portals (.gov, .mil, .edu). Funding for USA.gov and content contributors is made possible from the U.S. Congress, E-Government Act of 2002.
 
Crowd sourced content that is contributed to World Heritage Encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles.
 
By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. World Heritage Encyclopedia™ is a registered trademark of the World Public Library Association, a non-profit organization.
 


Copyright © World Library Foundation. All rights reserved. eBooks from Project Gutenberg are sponsored by the World Library Foundation,
a 501c(4) Member's Support Non-Profit Organization, and is NOT affiliated with any governmental agency or department.